本文发表于《大众科学》的前博客网络,仅反映作者的观点,不一定反映《大众科学》的观点。
我曾在之前的多个场合说过,家养动物绝非不在四足动物动物园的范围之外。相反,我发现它们非常有趣,并且我认为它们的 diversity(多样性)、evolution(进化)和 behaviour(行为)是我们应该更多关注的事情。您现在阅读的这篇文章是四足动物学播客(在播客宇宙中被称为 TetZoopodcats)的一个奇怪的衍生品,并且专门涉及四足动物动物园的常客理查德·辛格向我们提出的一个问题。理查德问道,关于撒哈拉以南地区家马的 diversity(多样性),我们究竟了解多少? 这是一个很好的问题,因为我们所知道的知识很少被 synthesised(综合),而且相当 obscure(晦涩)。虽然这个问题在播客中已经进行了相当长的讨论,但我认为在这里的博客上写出更多想法是合适的。
首先我应该说,对我来说,写关于家马品种及其历史的文章变得越来越容易,因为我现在拥有相当多的关于这些主题的书籍。虽然这些书有非常明显的 European(欧洲) (和 British(英国)) bias(偏见),但好消息是,至少其中一些书确实讨论了来自撒哈拉以南非洲等地区的品种。
非洲-突厥 origins(起源)。 大多数非洲马品种都是以 Asia Minor(小亚细亚)和 Mediterranean fringes(地中海边缘)为中心的 domestication event(驯化事件)的 derivatives(衍生物)。 据说这个 region(地区)过去 inhabited(居住)着 wild horses(野马),一些 experts(专家)认为这些野马属于 subspecies(亚种)Equus caballus pumpelli,即非洲-突厥或 Oriental horse(东方马)。 我真的想在这里 avoid(避免)谈论 pre-domestic horses(驯化前马匹)和 domestication history(驯化历史)(以及 taxonomy(分类学))的话题,因为它非常 complicated(复杂),而且有很多话要说。 我要说的是,horses(马匹)似乎被 domesticated(驯化)了 several times(多次),来自 wild populations(野生种群),这些种群在 proportions(比例)和其他 characteristics(特征)上 almost certainly(几乎肯定)存在 differences(差异)。 但是,关于 domestic breeds(家马品种)中看到的一些 main differences(主要差异) reflect(反映)了其 wild ancestors(野生祖先)中 present(存在)的 differences(差异)的 idea(观点), somewhat controversial(有些争议)。
关于支持科学 journalism(新闻业)
如果您're enjoying(喜欢)这篇文章,请 consider(考虑)通过以下方式 supporting(支持)我们 award-winning(屡获殊荣的) journalism(新闻业): subscribing(订阅)。 通过 purchasing(购买) a subscription(订阅),您 are helping(正在帮助) to ensure(确保) the future(未来) of impactful stories(具有影响力的故事) about the discoveries(发现) and ideas(想法) shaping(塑造) our world today(我们当今的世界)。
无论如何,看起来是 Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental extraction(东方血统)的 breeds(品种)是 short- and fine-haired(短而细毛)、thin-maned(鬃毛稀疏)、slender-limbed horses(肢体纤细的马)。 它们有 proportionally long ears(比例较长的耳朵)和一个 bulging forehead region(凸出的前额区域),这 apparently(显然) reflects(反映)了 large frontal sinuses(大型额窦)的 presence(存在) (Bennett 2008)。 Among(在……之中) the forms arising(产生的形式) from the domestication(驯化) of these animals(这些动物) are the several forms(几种形式) of north Africa(北非) – of Libya(利比亚), Algeria(阿尔及利亚), Morocco(摩洛哥) and so on(等等) – collectively termed(统称为) Barb horses(巴布马)。
Barb horses(巴布马) and the Iberian connection(和伊比利亚的联系)。 Most comments made(大多数评论) about the anatomy(解剖结构) and appearance(外观) of the Barb(巴布马) are vague(模糊) and generalised(笼统)。 This is a long-headed(头长), long-legged horse(腿长的马) with flat shoulders(肩部平坦), a low-set tail(尾根低垂) and sloping hindquarters(后躯倾斜), and it can be virtually any shade of brown(棕色), black(黑色) or grey(灰色)。 It is sometimes 15 hands(手 (马匹高度单位)) (1.5 m) at the withers(肩隆) and has a strongly up-turned neck base(强烈向上弯曲的颈根), giving it a very erect neck carriage(非常挺拔的颈部姿势)。 Some sources(一些资料来源) say that Barbs(巴布马) have the bulging forehead(凸出的前额) and somewhat concave dorsal margin of the face(略微凹陷的面部背面边缘) typical(典型的) for Afro-Turkic horses(非洲-突厥马) (Goodall 1965), while others(而另一些人) say that a Barb(巴布马) has a straight or even slightly convex facial profile(笔直甚至略微凸起的面部轮廓) (Bennett 2008)。
Barbs(巴布马) are said to be extremely tough(非常强壮), docile(温顺) and hardy(耐寒)。 They’ve repeatedly been crossed(它们曾多次杂交) with Arab horses(阿拉伯马), so much so that a large pool of hybrids(大量的杂交品种) now exists(现在存在), and several Barb strains(几个巴布马品系) have been bred(已被培育出来)。 A form(一种类型) with a Roman-nosed appearance(罗马鼻外观) is associated(与……有关) with Tripoli(的黎波里), and smaller-bodied versions(体型较小的版本) have been bred(已被培育出来) in mountainous parts(山区) of Algeria(阿尔及利亚) and Morocco(摩洛哥)。 One hybrid population(一个杂交种群), mostly associated(主要与……有关) with Libya(利比亚), has a distinctive-enough look(具有足够独特的面貌) that it’s treated as a distinct breed(被视为一个独特的品种), the Libyan barb(利比亚巴布马) or North African horse(北非马)。 [下图来源:Notwist。]
Barb horses(巴布马) were taken(被带到) to Spain(西班牙) at some point(在某个时候)。 This is often thought(人们通常认为) to have happened(发生) as a consequence(结果) of the 8th century invasion of Iberia(8世纪入侵伊比利亚半岛) by the Moors(摩尔人), and these horses(这些马) have apparently had a major influence(显然产生了重大影响) on Iberian horse diversity(伊比利亚马的多样性)。 From here(从这里), they were taken(它们被带到) to South America(南美洲) where breeds like the Argentine Criollo(阿根廷克里奥罗马), Puerto Rican Paso Fino(波多黎各帕索菲诺马) and Marchador(曼加拉加马) are apparently derived from them(显然都起源于它们)。 I should also note briefly(我还应该简要指出) that Barbs(巴布马) may have originated(可能起源于) in Spain(西班牙) in the first place(最初), an idea(一种观点) which is consistent(与……相符) with archaeological and genetic data(考古和遗传数据) suggesting(表明) that the Iberian Peninsula(伊比利亚半岛) was both a Pleistocene refuge(更新世避难所) for wild horses(野马), and a domestication centre(驯化中心) for animals that were later taken around the Mediterranean fringes(地中海边缘) and across northern Africa(整个北非地区) (Jansen et al. 2002, Lopes et al. 2005, Cieslak et al. 2010)。
Nigerian(尼日利亚) and Dongola horses(和栋哥拉马)。 At some point(在某个时候), Barb horses(巴布马) were taken south(被带到南部) to Nigeria(尼日利亚), and here the variable(可变的) and poorly known(鲜为人知的) Nigerian horse(尼日利亚马) arose(由此产生)。 It has powerful shoulders(它具有强壮的肩部) and lightly built hindquarters(轻巧的后躯)。 Animals I’ve seen in photos(我在照片中看到的动物) have a gently bulging forehead(略微凸出的前额) and slightly concave dorsal face profile(略微凹陷的背面面部轮廓) like that seen in North African Barbs(与北非巴布马相似)。 14-14.2 hands(手高) is about typical(是典型的身高)。
Another African horse(另一种非洲马) that’s partly derived(部分源自) from Barbs(巴布马) taken southwards(南部) is the Dongola(栋哥拉马) or Dongolawi(栋哥拉维马), said to have originated(据说起源于) in the Dongola Province(栋哥拉省) of Sudan(苏丹) (Hendricks 2007)。 However(然而), it’s also seems to incorporate genes(似乎也融入了基因) from horses imported(进口) from Iberia(伊比利亚半岛) that came via Egypt(经埃及进口), with the ultimate origin(最终起源) of those Iberian horses(那些伊比利亚马) being ancient Numidia(古代努米底亚) (Hendricks 2007)。 The Dongola(栋哥拉马) is apparently most abundant(显然最为丰富) in northern Cameroon(喀麦隆北部)。 These horses(这些马) tend to be reddish(往往呈红棕色), but bay(栗色) and black animals(黑色动物) are common too(也很常见)。 Many comments made(许多评论) about the Dongola(栋哥拉马) have a negative connotation(带有负面含义): it’s described(它被描述为) as having thin legs(腿细), a proportionally big(比例大), dorsally convex(背面凸起) and unattractive head(难看的头部), a flat croup (= rump)(平坦的尻部(= 臀部)), and a long back(背部长)。 I think that these characterisations(我认为这些描述) are often unfair(往往是不公平的) since they compare these breeds(因为它们将这些品种进行比较) to ‘ideal’ westernised breeds(“理想”的西方化品种) like the Thoroughbred(如纯种马)。
Over the years(多年来), Dongola horses(栋哥拉马) have been extensively crossed(已被广泛杂交) with Arabs(阿拉伯马), Barbs(巴布马) and Arab-Barb crosses(阿拉伯-巴布杂交品种)。 Hendricks (2007) refers to(提到了) the degeneration of quality(质量的下降) in this breed(在该品种中) and a 19th century concern(19世纪的担忧) that it was nearing extinction(它濒临灭绝)。 Dongola horses(栋哥拉马) were used(被使用) in the Italian-Abyssinian War(意阿战争) of 1895-1896, and were also exported(也被出口) to Ireland(爱尔兰)。 These sorts of movements(这些类型的运动) give some illustration(在一定程度上说明) of why domestic horse genetics(家马遗传学) – and the relationships that have been recovered between the many breeds(在许多品种之间恢复的关系) – are so complex(如此复杂)。
The Fulani(富拉尼) and other west and central African horses(和其他西部和中部非洲马)。 Several very similar breeds or strains(几种非常相似的品种或品系) exist(存在) across west and central Africa(整个西部和中部非洲地区)。 They include the Fulani(它们包括富拉尼马), the Bahr-el-Ghazal(加扎勒河马) of Chad(乍得), the Hausa(豪萨马) and Bornu(博尔努马) of Nigeria(尼日利亚), and the Bandiagara(邦迪加拉马), Djerma(杰尔马马), Mossi(莫西马), Songhai(桑海马) and Yagha(亚加马) of the great ‘bend region’ of the Niger River(尼日尔河大“弯曲地区”) (Hendricks 2007)。 These horses(这些马) might all be regarded as strains(可能都被视为品系) of the Dongola(栋哥拉马) (and collectively lumped together(并统称为) as West African Dongola(西非栋哥拉马)), or they might be regarded as distinct breeds(或者它们可能被视为独特的品种)。 Differentiating ‘strains’ and ‘breeds’(区分“品系”和“品种”) in domestic animals(在家养动物中) is often very subjective(通常非常主观), and it’s made messy(这使得区分变得混乱) by the fact that many populations are hybrid swarms(许多种群是杂交蜂群), or made distinct(或变得独特) by a cultural role or function(文化角色或功能) more than by genetics(遗传) or anatomy(解剖结构)。
The Fulani horse(富拉尼马) is associated(与……有关) with Cameroon(喀麦隆) and the nomadic Fulani people(游牧的富拉尼人)。 Fulani horses(富拉尼马) are small and hardy(体型小巧而耐寒), they’re highly variable in colour(颜色变化很大), and they have features indicative(它们具有表明……的特征) of an Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental ancestry(东方血统)。 Pictures show(图片显示) a long, narrow face(狭长的面部), slender proportions overall(整体纤细的比例) and a function(功能) as both a pack and saddle horse(驮马和鞍马)。
However(然而), genetic data reveals(遗传数据揭示) complex relatedness(复杂的相关性) at some level(在一定程度上) to Anatolian horses(安纳托利亚马), the Cheju horses(济州马) of far eastern Asia(远东亚洲), the Portugese Lusitano(葡萄牙卢西塔诺马) and famous Lipizzan or Lipizzaner horses(著名的利比扎马或利皮扎纳马) of Austria(奥地利), and Arabs too(以及阿拉伯马) (Lopes et al. 2005)。 I don’t know whether this sharing of genetic data(我不知道这种共享遗传数据) with such widely dispersed breeds(与如此广泛分布的品种) is typical(是否典型) of African horses(非洲马) but it should be said(但应该说) that many horses(许多马), when analysed in this way(当以这种方式分析时), reveal genetic affinities(揭示遗传亲缘关系) with surprisingly distant breeds(与出人意料的遥远品种)。 Again(再次), it paints a picture(它描绘了一幅图景) of substantial movement of horse breeds(马品种的大量迁移), and a long and complex history(漫长而复杂的历史) of hybridisation and introgression(杂交和渗入) (Cieslak et al. 2010)。
Adding to the complexity(使……更加复杂) of the horse story(马匹故事) in west and central Africa(西部和中部非洲) is the idea(是这样一种观点) that the horses of this region(该地区的马匹) – derived from north African(源自北非), Barb-type animals(巴布型动物) – lived feral(野生生活) for a while(一段时间) and (1) became dwarfed(变得矮小) as a consequence of natural selection(作为自然选择的结果), (2) evolved partial resistance(进化出局部抵抗力) to trypanosomiasis(锥虫病), and (3) became more adaptable(变得更具适应性) as goes dietary requirements and feeding behaviour(在饮食要求和摄食行为方面)。 A surprising amount(令人惊讶的数量) has been written(已被撰写) about these horses(关于这些马) and several authors(几位作者) have implied or argued(暗示或认为) that they should be regarded as a distinct race(它们应该被视为一个独特的种族), “quite distinct(截然不同) from the Oriental(东方马), Barb(巴布马) and Dongola horses(栋哥拉马)” (Blench 1993, p. 89)。 They really can be very small(它们确实可以非常小), with shoulder heights(肩高) of 90-110 cm in cases(在某些情况下)。 Linguistic data(语言数据), rock art(岩画) and historical accounts(历史记载) indicate(表明) that these animals(这些动物) have been in west Africa(在西非) for some considerable time(相当长一段时间), perhaps for 1000 years or more(可能已经有 1000 年或更长时间)。
In fact(事实上), it’s obvious(很明显) that “[t]he importance of ponies(小马的重要性) in west Africa(在西非) has been seriously underestimated(已被严重低估) because the process of replacement(取代的过程) by the larger and more prestigious horses(更大、更负盛名的马匹) brought across the desert(被沙漠带来的) was already advanced(已经很深入) during the period when the first observers were writing(当第一批观察者写作时)” (Blench 1993, p. 103)。 Horses have been – and are – far more abundant(马匹过去和现在都更加丰富), more diverse(更加多样化), and more important(更加重要) in tropical Africa(热带非洲) than the majority of us think(比我们大多数人认为的)。
Plateau ponies(高原小马) of Nigeria(尼日利亚), war ponies(战马) of Chad and Cameroon(乍得和喀麦隆)。 Several groups of people(几个群体的人民) in what is now Nigeria(现在的尼日利亚), Cameroon(喀麦隆), Chad(乍得) and elsewhere in western and central Africa(西部和中部非洲其他地区) are recorded as using and breeding horses(有记录表明他们使用和饲养马匹), and of using them extensively in battle(并将它们广泛用于战斗)。 Indeed(事实上), there’s good evidence(有充分的证据) that the use of horses(马匹的使用) was key(是关键) in the military and political patterns(军事和政治格局) of the region(该地区) (Blench 1993)。 The Chamba people(昌巴人) of Cameroon and Nigeria(喀麦隆和尼日利亚) used a horse(使用一种马) – seemingly known only as the Chamba pony(似乎只被称为昌巴小马) – in raids and attacks(在袭击和攻击中), while the Nigerian Irigwe people(尼日利亚伊里格韦人) apparently exchanged(显然交换了) their small, pony-type horses(他们的小型小马型马匹) for larger, north African-type ones(更大的北非型马匹) at some point during the 19th century(在19世纪的某个时候) and thereby improved(从而提高了) their aggressive capabilities(他们的攻击能力)。
In Chad(在乍得), the powerful Baguirmi Kingdom(强大的巴吉尔米王国) used mounted cavalry(使用了骑兵), equipped with quilted armour(配备了绗缝盔甲) worn over leather and chainmail(穿在皮革和锁子甲上), during the 18th century at least(至少在18世纪), and armoured horses(装甲马) were in fact used extensively(事实上得到广泛使用) across central and eastern Sudanic Africa(整个苏丹中部和东部非洲地区)。 Ceremonial use(仪式性使用) of these armoured horses(这些装甲马) persists today(至今仍然存在)。 The armour(盔甲) is often brightly coloured(通常色彩鲜艳) and spectacular(壮观)。
Plateau State(高原州) in Nigeria(尼日利亚) was inhabited(居住着) by people with a rich and interesting horse-based culture(拥有丰富而有趣的马匹文化的民族)。 Horses were ridden in war(马匹被用于战争), and were used as bridewealth payments(被用作彩礼), in ceremony(在仪式中), and as indications of wealth(以及财富的象征)。 The Piti people(皮蒂人) of Nigeria(尼日利亚) also used(也使用) their small hill ponies(他们的小山地小马) when hunting game(狩猎时)。 Sadly(可悲的是), all of these animals(所有这些动物) seem to have declined substantially(似乎都大幅减少) in recent decades(近几十年), with a 1990 survey finding(1990年的一项调查发现) only three in use(只有三匹还在使用) among one of the relevant ethnic groups(相关的民族群体之一) (Blench 1993)。
A remarkable tradition(一种非凡的传统) apparently used(显然使用) by people across the region(该地区的人们) concerns the deliberate cutting(涉及故意割开) of the horse’s back(马的背部) such that it bled(使其流血), the clotting blood(凝结的血液) then being used(然后被用作) as an adhesive(粘合剂) to help the (bareback) rider((无鞍)骑手) stay in place(保持在位)。 Blench (1993) quoted(引用了) Kumm (1910) on this(在这方面), and noted(并指出) that it seemed so bizarre (and cruel)(这似乎非常离奇(且残酷)) that it would ordinarily be worthy of dismissal(以至于通常会被认为是不值得一提的) as a traveller’s tale(旅行者故事)。 However(然而), it was mentioned repeatedly(它被多次提到) by those who visited the region(访问该地区的人们) between the 1850s and 1940s(在1850年代至1940年代之间)。 Some authors provided extra information(一些作者提供了额外的信息), saying that the skin was opened(称皮肤被打开) on the back(在背部) such that a swollen pad(从而形成了一个肿胀的垫子) (and eventually a giant roughened area of scar tissue(最终形成了一个巨大的粗糙的疤痕组织区域)) formed(形成) and functioned(并充当功能) as a sort of built-in saddle(一种内置鞍座)。
Lest we think(为了避免我们认为) that people abused or did not value their horses(人们虐待或不重视他们的马匹), Kumm and other writers(Kumm和其他作家) also described(也描述了) the close bonds(密切联系) that were observed(被观察到的)。 A Berom man(一位贝罗姆人) (the Berom or Birom(贝罗姆人或比罗姆人) are indigeous(是土著) to the Jos Plateau(乔斯高原) in Nigeria(尼日利亚)) was quoted as saying(被引用说) “A horse is like a man(马就像人一样); you send it out to bring a tired man home(你派它出去把疲惫的人带回家), you give it water to drink(你给它水喝), you walk miles to find it grass to eat(你走几英里去寻找草给它吃), it carries you to hunt and to war(它驮着你去狩猎和战争), when it is tired you dismount(当它累了,你就下马) and carry your load on your own head(自己扛着你的负重)。 When you die(当你去世时), and they lead it towards your grave(当他们牵着它走向你的坟墓时), its spirit may fly out of its body(它的灵魂可能会飞出它的身体) in its anxiety to find you(出于对找到你的渴望)” (Isichei 1982, p. 23-24)。 Ponies kept by the Berom(贝罗姆人饲养的小马) were killed(被杀死) when their owner died(在其主人去世时) and the corpse(尸体) was then wrapped in the skin(然后被裹在马皮中) (Davies, in Blench 1993)。
Blench (1993) recounted(叙述了) Maistre’s 1895 writings(Maistre 1895 年的著作) on the use of horses(关于马匹的使用) by the Gaberi people(加贝里人) of Cameroon(喀麦隆) who used ‘Sara’ or ‘Laka’ horses(他们使用“萨拉”或“拉卡”马) when attacking and raiding(在攻击和袭击时)。 Axes(斧头), spears(长矛), saddles(鞍座) and bits and reins(嚼子和缰绳) were used(被使用) by these people(这些人) as they rode(当他们骑马时), and Maistre apparently featured(Maistre 显然展示了) a remarkable image(一幅引人注目的图像) where Gaberi warriors(加贝里战士), crossing the Logone River(渡过洛贡河) in canoes(乘坐独木舟), are leading their swimming horses behind them(并带领他们游泳的马匹在他们身后) (Blench 1993)。 Maistre also referred to(Maistre 还提到了) the sight(景象) of 3000-4000 Gaberi warriors(3000-4000 名加贝里战士), about one-third of which were mounted(其中约三分之一是骑马的), so they apparently owned a great many horses(因此他们显然拥有大量的马匹)。
Ponies of the far south(遥远南方的矮种马)。 What about far southern Africa(遥远的南部非洲呢)? We’ll begin with(我们将从……开始) the Basutoland pony or Basuto pony(巴苏陀兰小马或巴苏陀小马), a small, thickset(小型、粗壮), hardy horse(耐寒的马) associated with Lesotho(与莱索托有关) (formerly known as Basutoland(以前称为巴苏陀兰))。 It’s apparently has exceptionally hard hooves(它显然具有非常坚硬的蹄子), relatively short legs(相对较短的腿) and a longish back(较长的背部) (Goodall 1963)。 These features(这些特征) are all related(都与……有关) to its sure-footedness(它的稳健性) on rough, rocky terrain(崎岖不平的岩石地形), and it’s this characteristic(正是这一特性) which had made the Basuto(使巴苏陀小马成为) a popular and reliable horse(受欢迎且可靠的马) used extensively(广泛使用) during the Boer War(布尔战争)。 The Basuto(巴苏陀小马) seems to have originated(似乎起源于) as a cross(杂交品种) between Arab(阿拉伯马), Persian(波斯马) and Thoroughbred horses(纯种马) during the middle of the 17th century(17世纪中期) and to have been brought(被带来) to southern Africa(南部非洲) by Dutch and Portugese people(荷兰人和葡萄牙人)。 It seems to be the same animal(它似乎是同一种动物) as that originally called the Cape horse(与最初被称为开普敦马的动物)。 I mean to write about Boer War horse memorials(我打算写关于布尔战争马匹纪念碑的文章) at some stage(在某个阶段)。
It should also be noted(还应该指出的是) that southern African(南部非洲) is home to(是……的故乡) the South African miniature(南非迷你马), a light draft riding horse(轻型役用骑乘马) less than 90 cm tall at the withers(肩高不到 90 厘米)。 The origins and history(起源和历史) of miniature horses(迷你马) is confusing(令人困惑), in part because people have crossed small individuals(部分原因是人们将小型个体杂交) of many breeds(许多品种) to create small-stature animals(创造矮身材的动物)。 In cases(在某些情况下), they have therefore created hybrids(它们因此创造了杂交品种) that exhibit features(表现出特征) of several larger horse breeds(几种大型马品种)。 Indeed(事实上), the South African miniature(南非迷你马) comes in forms(有多种形式) that are essentially miniature Arabs(本质上是迷你阿拉伯马) as well as miniature draft horses(以及迷你役用马)。
Various other horse breeds(其他各种马品种) are associated(与……有关) with South Africa(南非)。 Incidentally(顺便说一句), there’s also a Madagascar pony(还有一种马达加斯加小马), an animal that I’ll have to discuss some other time(这是一种我必须在其他时候讨论的动物)。
Namib horses(纳米布马)。 Finally(最后), I have to make mention of(我不得不提到) an enigmatic group(一个神秘的群体) of feral, wild-living, desert-dwelling horses(野生、野外生活、沙漠居住的马匹): the Namib Desert horses(纳米布沙漠马)。 Genetic data shows(遗传数据显示) that these are Afro-Turkic(非洲-突厥)/Oriental horses(东方马) with a distant affinity(具有遥远亲缘关系) with the Arab(与阿拉伯马), though they are genetically quite distinct(尽管它们在基因上非常独特) and with a very low amount of variation(且变异程度非常低) (Cothran et al. 2001)。 They probably descend from(它们可能起源于) horses imported(进口) to the region(到该地区) for military purposes(军事目的) and don’t have (contra some ideas on their origins)(并且(与关于其起源的一些观点相反)没有任何) any direct links(直接联系) to Basuto ponies(巴苏陀小马) used by endemic people(地方性人民使用的)。 [邻近照片来源:Gerald de Beer。]
There are some indications(有一些迹象表明) that Namib horses(纳米布马) have evolved a few specialisations(已经进化出一些特殊性) for desert life(适应沙漠生活) over their short period(在它们短暂的时期) (less than 100 years) of living feral((不到 100 年)野生生活), since they’re seemingly better at conserving water(因为它们似乎更善于节约用水) than other domestic horses(比其他家马)。 They’re predated upon by(它们被……捕食) Spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta(斑鬣狗 Crocuta crocuta)。 [下图由 Sven-Eric Kanzler 上传。]
Here in Europe(在欧洲), (and elsewhere, I’m sure(以及其他地方,我确信)) we tend not to associate horses with Africa(我们往往不会将马匹与非洲联系起来), and we also tend to be tremendously naive(而且我们也往往非常幼稚) as goes the use and role of horses in African culture and ceremony(在非洲文化和仪式中马匹的用途和作用方面)。 I don’t know anywhere near as much as I might like(我所知的远不及我想要的那么多), but the few sources I’ve consulted show(但我查阅的一些资料表明) that western, central and southern Africa(西部、中部和南部非洲) at least have a rich and diverse history of equestrianism(至少具有丰富多样的马术历史)。 Horses have also been used extensively in war(马匹也被广泛用于战争), in ceremonial fashion(在仪式性场合) or as working or riding animals(或作为役用或骑乘动物) in many African countries(在许多非洲国家) even well south of the Sahara(即使在撒哈拉以南)。 Furthermore(此外), there’s a fascinating (and little written-about) history(存在一个令人着迷的(且鲜有记载的)历史) of horse trading, translocation and breeding(马匹贸易、迁移和育种), that’s intertwined(它交织在一起) with the history of many African peoples(与许多非洲民族的历史)。 There are many spinoffs(有很多衍生话题) of this discussion(关于这次讨论) that I aim to return to in time(我打算在以后再回到这些话题)。
有关之前四足动物动物园关于马匹的文章,请参阅…
伦敦格兰特动物学博物馆一日游(包括对斑驴和其他斑马的讨论)
参考资料 – -
Bennett, D. 2008. The origin and relationships of the Mustang, Barb, and Arabian horse.
Blench, R. 1993. Ethnographic and linguistic evidence for the prehistory of African ruminant livestock, horses and ponies. In Andah, B., Okpoko, A., Shaw, C. & Sinclair, P. (eds) The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. Routledge, New York, pp. 71-103.
Cothran, E. G., van Dyk, E. & van der Merwe, F. J. 2001. Genetic variation in the feral horses of the Namib Desert, Namibia. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 72, 18-22.
Goodall, D. M. 1965. Horses of the World. Country Life Ltd., London.
Hendricks, B. L. 2007. International Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Isichei, E. 1982. Introduction. In Isichei, E (ed) Studies in the History of Plateau State, Nigeria. Macmillan, London, p. 1-57.
Jansen, T., Forster, P., Levine, M. A., Oelke, H., Hurles, M., Renfrew, C., Weber, J. & Olek, K. 2002. Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 99, 10905-10910.
Kumm, K. 1910. From Hausaland to Egypt, Though to Sudan. Constable, London.
Lopes, M. S., Mendon?a, D., Cymbron, T., Valera, M., da Costa-Ferreira, J. & da C?mara Machado, A. 2005. The Lusitano horse maternal lineage based on mitochondrial D-loop sequence variation. Animal Genetics 36, 196-202.